Notes on Narrative Disclosure in Film

Narrative and narration

Narrative is a way of comprehending space, time, and causality. Since in film there are at least two important frames of reference for understanding space, time, and causality, narrative in film is the principle by which data is converted from the frame of the screen into a diegesis - a world - that frames a particular story, or sequence of action, in that world; equally, it is the principle by which data is converted from story onto screen (Branigan 1992, p. 36).

Narration is the overall regulation and distribution of knowledge which determines how and when the spectator acquires knowledge - that is how the spectator is able to know what he or she comes to know in a narrative. A typical description of the spectator’s ‘position’ of knowledge includes the invention of (sometimes tacit) speakers, listeners, and watchers who are in a (spatial and temporal) position to know, and to make use of one or more disparities of knowledge (Branigan 1992, p. 76).

Branigan makes a distinction between narrative and narration. Narrative becomes an object while ‘narration’ is a process of information disclosure. Narrative as an object is the principle that converts the light patterns on the screen into the diegetic world of the characters.  Similarly, it is the narrative principle that filmmakers use to make films and construct the images of the screen from the diegesis.  The narration controls disclosure of information and depends on disparities of knowledge between different characters and the audience to inform and attempt to shape an audience response.

How is information communicated within the narrative?

As with all forms of communication, a system of signs is required to communicate information between characters within the diegesis and between the text and the reader. To an extent, these signs are deliberately placed within a film, by its producers, to communicate units of information to the audience.

How is information interpreted within the narrative?

However, it is important to note that, as is common with sign systems, the interpretation of a particular sign can be disputed because of the polysemy of signs and not all meanings are intentional. Further, the meaning of a sign is changed by a preceding or successive sign. The order of signs is important to the particular cumulative meaning of the signs. The implication of this for narrative disclosure is that audience members of different communicative competencies and cultural groups will recognise different signs as more important and read them differently.

Control of Information

Information is not only controlled through the inclusion of signs, but also by their organisation. ‘Narrative devices’ can be utilised to control how information is revealed, to whom and when. One form of narrative device is shifting in time, which includes flashbacks, flashforwards, notions of the present, repetition of a sequence, dream sequences, hallucinations, premonitions and supernatural projection.

For example, a flashback can include signs that will alter the meaning of the signs in the present time frame and vice versa. In Saving Private Ryan, which is told almost entirely in flashback, the information at the end of the flashback reveals the identity of the person whose memories have been viewed, which also reveals a shift in narrative point-of-view which had, until that return to the notional ‘present’, been concealed.

The second type of narrative device is shifting of the narrative point of view. Most commonly, the sharing of knowledge between the principal character and the audience reveals the story information. However, there are other methods of information disclosure that rely on gaps of knowledge between different groups or individuals:

• use of a division between audience knowledge and character knowledge - if the audience knows where the bomb is and the character does not then suspense is generated, while surprise is the function if the character knows more than the audience; e.g. In Marnie, as the Marnie is attempting to steal money from her workplace the audience is shown Marnie’s shoe falling from her pocket.  If the shoe falls then a cleaning lady will hear and Marnie will be caught.  But Marnie does not know about her shoe.  Tension is created as the audience watches the shoe fall and hit the ground.  Marnie turns and is shocked, but the cleaning lady has not moved.  Unknown to both Marnie and audience, the cleaning lady is deaf.
• use of a division between audience knowledge, one character’s knowledge and another character’s knowledge; e.g. In the film Perfect Blue, the lead character begins to question her memory as she finds clues that incriminate her in a series of murders.  The audience experiences the delusions that the character has and so they are bonded in ignorance of the identity of the true killer.  Only when the protagonist discovers the truth, that her agent is the killer, does the audience finally understand all the events.
• use of a division between one character’s knowledge, another character’s knowledge and the audience’s knowledge; e.g. In Magnolia, a little boy recites a rap to a police officer.  At the end of the rap the police officer looks confused because he hasn’t understood a single word.  As the film progresses, the audience, if they understood the rap will realise that the boy has prophesied the events of the film.
• voice-over narration - gaps can occur between what is seen and what is said, since the narrator controls the terms of disclosure.  For example, in Take the Money and Run, the lead character is built up in stature by the narrator as a hardened criminal and, in reality, the character is the most inept thief.  In one instance, the narrator refers to serious street crime as we see the character reaching into a gumball dispenser and getting his hand caught.

Shifts in narrative point-of-view and time have several effects:

• delaying of information disclosure builds tension in an effort to manipulate the audience directly;

• empathy for characters shifts throughout the film with the shifts in point of view;

• power relations between characters change with the shifting of point of view, since story knowledge and interpretive power are so intimately related.

The techniques that are used within films by filmmakers can be seen as having a desired effect.  This effect, though having intention can of course be interpreted in different ways from that intention.  The table below draws out some techniques and their desired effects on the audience.

Technique	‘Effect’
Flashback, Flashforward, Present	The information revealed in one time frame will alter the understanding that the audience has of another time frame, e.g. Saving Private Ryan, Citizen Caine
Repetition	Information can be revealed by increasing the duration of a repeated incident or by changing the narrative point-of-view of the incident, e.g. Memento
Dream	Dreams can be used to mislead the audience by making them believe that some events are actually taking place but in reality are only dreams e.g. Mulholland Drive, Jacob’s Ladder
Hallucinations	Again, hallucinations can mislead the audience and situates them with the character in terms of their knowledge, e.g. A Beautiful Mind
Premonitions	Premonitions set up expectations about what is to occur in the narrative, but these expectations can be subverted, e.g. Don’t Look Now
Voice-over	Voice-over discrepancies can create humour or be used to show deceit between characters.  Further they delimit the terms of narrative disclosure between the characters.

Disclosure of Sexuality

My own research is exploring links between narrative disclosure in film and the treatment of gay characters ‘coming out’.

Narrative structures are commodified by commercial film studios in that they repeat forms in an attempt to ensure revenue. The narratives and the representations they contain are repackaged time and again because they are proven to sell.  Examples of this type of filmmaking can be seen in the number of teen-comedies and war movies currently playing in the cinemas.  Conventional narratives, such as those used in Hollywood firstly set up, secondly develop and complicate and finally resolve the story.  This type of narrative is known as the ‘three-act structure’.

In a ‘coming out’ narrative the temptation is to reveal to everyone at the resolution, but it is equally important to be aware that there may be some characters who still do not know the sexuality of a gay character by the end of the film. This still constitutes a resolution of the narrative.  Beautiful Thing provides an example of this type of resolution, because one of the characters has not come out to his family and their reaction is never seen even though it is likely to be the most homophobic.

Many gay characters in film are not central protagonists but rather ‘best friends’. In the instance of a gay friend the narrative about that character is considered separate from the main narrative of the central character. Often a secondary narrative or B-plot is introduced to stop the narrative from flagging. Therefore, it is important to consider the purpose of the gay friend narrative. It could be a mechanical plot device to provide interest in the middle section of the film or it could be included to create empathy for the central protagonist who is now seen as friend to all because he has a gay friend.  There are other interpretations that could be made of the inclusion of a gay character, such as in As Good as it Gets, where the gay character helps the lead to connect with the world and get over his obsessional behaviour or in The Mexican, where the character type of the assassin is given a new dimension by being gay.

References

• Branigan, Edward (1992): Narrative Comprehension and the Fiction Film. London: Routledge

Based on Discussions with Nigel Orrillard

March 2002