Once as a child, I attended a property auction with my parents which I found extremely fascinating. I was too young to understand why all these people were waving frantically at the auctioneer, so, thinking it was a game I could participate in, I waved my hand right up in the air as high as I could. "Put your hand down!" shrieked my Mother, worried she'd be bankrupt before the day was through. What I failed to comprehend then, which I clearly understand now, is that the raising of a hand at an auction is a sign. It is a sign which signifies the offer of a bid for a particular lot or property, which ultimately is the signified concept communicated.
Semiotics, the study of signs, which stems from the early work of Saussure (1857-1913), and Pierce (1839-1914), can be applied to virtually any sign that signifies a meaning, or concept as a means of communication in the outside world. This could be in the context of the Highway Code, a selection of historical portraits, or even in the mass media; however, advertisements are the signs that interest me most, since they convey a wide variety of meanings, ideologies, discourses, and "do not simply reflect the world and construct reality" (Hart 1991), but are, 'specific representational practices' (Dyer 1982:115) which society interprets for itself.
Based in a semiotic framework, I have chosen to attempt a detailed analysis of several advertisements for Wallis, a nationally renowned clothes manufacturer for women. The advertisements [or signs] for Wallis are in a series of three. The medium through which the company advertises is women's magazines, and in this particular case, Company magazine dated September 1997 which is targeted at middle to upper class females of 20-35 years of age, from all ethnic backgrounds. The context in which the series of advertisements are found is predominantly feminine, appearing amongst articles based on beauty and fashion. Moreover, the three two-page ads are strategically placed fourteen pages apart near the front of the magazine, ensuring the advert does not go unnoticed by the reader.
Unlike many other adverts in magazines which simply display a picture of the product (e.g. CK One), or are superimposed (e. g Smirnoff vodka), the advertisements are photographs which have been posed by models, but are just as valuable in analysing semiotically for, "photographs are evidence not only of what is there, but of what an individual sees... an evaluation of the world" (Sontag).
I chose the Wallis advertisements in particular because I think they are humorous in an ironic way. They expose women as sex objects to men, but simultaneously subvert this 'tradition', thus making the man an object of empowerment for the woman from the way she dresses. Undoubtedly, feminists would have a field day criticising these adverts, especially since it is claimed that adverts selling women’s fashions advertise in terms of what they can do for their relationships, and in relation to the material position of females in the real world (Dyer 1982:117). However, as a believer in equality myself, I only intend to offer a fair and honest semiotic portrayal of these advertisements without the fear of treading on anyone's toes! In the field of semiotics, it is a truth universally acknowledged that the sign consists of a signifier (the form which the sign takes), and therefore, the signified (the concept it represents). Despite Barthes' claims that photographic media appears to record rather than to transform or signify (Woolacott 1982 in Chandler, WWW), I will attempt an examination of how the Wallis adverts are composed of signifiers, and the signified concepts they convey.
In figure 1, we are presented with a photo of a man on an underground
train, and an attractive, well dressed woman walking across the station
platform. The train is in soft focus, thus signifying that it is distant
and moving away from the platform. We know that the man on the train is a
guard because his uniform signifies this, and simultaneously, his uniform
signifies that he has no connection with the woman. Also signified is the
fact that he is staring at the woman, from the way his mouth is open in
awe, and his head is strategically placed for impact on the wall behind
him; thus confirming the statement Dress to Kill.
The woman is a sign herself, the signifier being her appearance; she is well groomed and dressed in 'trendy' Wallis clothes, signifying a sexy, feminine code of attractiveness. Her photo is iconic in that it represents the signified; a woman 'dressing to kill', but simultaneously, it may also signify her status in society indexically (Dyer 1982:124). In this case, she represents a young, confident, fashion conscious female from the way her hair is perfectly styled, and her face is determined while she walks. Alternatively, one may argue that her blonde hair signifies a 'bimbo'; girls who are always stared at, however, in this instance, considering she can afford to buy nice clothes and make up her face and hair meticulously, this aspect of her appearance could simply add to her signified attraction, and even suggest a kind of "healthy sexuality" (Dyer 1982:126). Additionally, the woman is symbolically signified as a passive sex object for men, since she is desired from the way she dresses in Wallis clothes.
In figure 2, we are presented with a man watching a pretty woman outside a
window whilst shaving another man; his life at risk. The man who is
shaving the person in the chair is indexically signified as a barber from
being dressed in a white coat of his profession; the man in the chair thus
signifying a customer due to his suit. The expression on the customer's
face signifies that he is worried that the distracted barber will
accidentally cut his throat with the razor, although the barber is
oblivious to the customer's concern due to the attraction of the pretty
woman. The barber's bald head is a signifier of old age, but due to his
ear-ring and the fact that he stares at a young girl, we can assume the
signified concept of his young age.
The girl is a very important sign here yet again. Such a stance in a public street could be a signifier of seduction since she assumes a provocative pose with her left leg slightly bent, her hair blowing in the wind and a sultry smile on her face. She does not seem to be looking at anything in particular either, but simply posing outside the window; perhaps a signifier that signifies her deliberate intention to attract attention, however fatally. Moreover, her dress is short and exposes her legs and arms which adds to this signified 'flirty' image.
Remarkably, hair is a very important signifier in this context, as it seems to be associated with the binary opposites; enclosure and freedom. The girl's hair is free and tossing in the wind, thus signifying her independence and a carefree attitude to life, whereas the barber, himself slightly bald and cutting hair as his living, is thus enclosed and entrapped inside the shop. This signification is accentuated by the fact that he looks at the girl from the inside, while she is outside, and the shop is more shaded with blacks and greys than where the girl is standing, despite the photo being black and white. Like figure 1, this advert again presents the woman as a sign; her code of dress and appearance thus being the main signifiers which signify the mental concept of 'dressing to kill'.
In figure 3, we are presented with a woman who is being stared at by a man
driving a grass cutter, who is approaching another man lying down directly
in front of the lawnmower; his life at risk. As in figures 1 and 2, the man
is signified as a figure of empowerment In that he becomes distracted from
his work by a well-dressed woman walking by. However, unlike figure 1 where
the man who notices the woman puts his life in danger, both figures 2 and
3 display that the man who does not notice the woman has his life at risk.
This could possibly signify the rather ridiculous and far-fetched concept
that, if a man does not take notice of a well dressed woman in Wallis
clothes, he could die!
Wallis have also made this sign more farcical and humorous by portraying the name of the book the man is reading. It is called 'Pulp Fiction’ which symbolically represents the signified concept of the man being made into pulp by the lawn mower.
The woman presented here, as in figure 1, is dressed smartly with a perfect hairstyle, although she wears a business suit, thus signifying indexically that she has a high powered job. She also wears a short skirt which is a signifier of feminine sexuality, her legs thus being exposed. Notably, Althusser (1971) claims that the patriarchal attraction to legs is accentuated by the wearing of high heels, which limits physical activity and strength in the female making her weak and passive (Fiske 1990:110). However, Althusser's claim does not apply to the sign here, for power and strength is given to the female. From her sexual appeal, she signifies power and strength in that she gains control over the man's actions, and her high heels and slim cut suit are also signifiers of power in the workplace; a predominantly Patriarchal domain.
Each of the three advertisements is in black and white, which generally signifies class or nostalgia in films and television. If this applies to advertisements, then black and white could signify a romantic or reminiscent feel to the product, romance being associated with femininity. However, I think this is not what the advertisers had in mind, for the adverts are not romantic in any way. It is perhaps more likely that the black and white signifies importance, the Wallis clothes being more enhanced than if they were in colour. For example, in figure 3, if the woman had a brown, navy or black suit it would not stand out against a backdrop of green grass and a blue sky. In fact, the advertisers were probably trying to establish the importance of buying quality and fashionable Wallis clothing using a "sophisticated coolness without detracting from the implied femininity" (Dyer 1982:120). Also, as Barthes (1964) states, the signs in the visual images are confirmed by the caption (Fiske 1990. 110). The text Dress to Kill symbolically signifies the signified concept that the photograph signifies (it 'anchors' the image); the woman dresses and thus puts men's lives in danger due to her sexual attraction. The letter 'i' in 'Kill' is in the shape of a dagger, thus symbolically signifying the act of killing and subsequent death, furthermore, the word dress is an order, ordering the female to wear these clothes, rather than if it stated dressed.
Each man in the photograph who is distracted by the woman has a profession: guard, barber and gardener. This may be a signifier of the contrast of a middle class woman against a patriarchal working class background. For example, in figure 1 we see a smartly dressed woman placed against a dark and dreary underground station backdrop, and in figure 2 we see a pretty girl in a short dress contrasted against an enclosed and claustrophobic looking barber shop. The signified concept here is undoubtedly that when wearing Wallis clothes, you stand out.
Each advert ironically subverts the 'passive' image of the woman. Even though she signifies a desired object, her image is a signifier of sexual power which empowers the onlooking male. Additionally, the adverts are iconic, indexical and symbolic; iconic in that the photo of the woman signifies the clothes that Wallis are aiming to sell, indexical in that the representational signs of the men near death are directly connected to the signified concept of Dress to Kill, and symbolic in that the woman is portrayed as an object of desire, and the text symbolically signifies Dress to Kill.
Peirce states that his model of the sign consists of the referent - something in the experiential world to which the sign vehicle refers, contradicting Saussure's model which has no direct reference to reality (Chandler, WWW). However, there are some visible references made to the experiential world in the text. It is generally believed that women do become objects of desire to men, speaking from personal experience. This is particularly noticeable when builders wolf-whistle at you in the street! It is true to say that women are 'ogled' by their appearance - there are not many men who would not at least look at a girl with long blonde hair and a short dress as in figure 2. We could also argue that the sign refers to reality insofar as it portrays a historical/social realism; the sign appropriates a referent system of women's exploitation and oppression over the years, women here being shown as a model for the modern carefree and liberated woman (Dyer 1982:124). What is recognised as being 'realistic' here can be termed as an aesthetic code of realism (Chandler, WWW), however, the signs are not true to life. The chances of a man becoming so dumbstruck' by a woman walking by that he puts his own life in danger are very slim. Those who form this opinion believe that the reality of the sign is therefore purely constructed by the media. I tend to believe that the text's 'reality' (although referring to something that could possibly happen in the experiential world), is in fact exaggerated, distorted, and thus constructed by the advertisers; it is fiction.
The consumer's interpretation of an advertisement also depends on its paradigmatic analysis (the comparison and substitution of the sign's signifiers with alternative signifiers), and its syntagmatic analysis (how the elements of the sign are structured sequentially and in comparison with each other).
The Wallis adverts are already a syntagm in that they are a series of three adverts in a sequence, juxtaposed one after the other. The narrative syntagmatic form is based on the text's sequential relationships, and in the three figures shown, the narrative form can be described as follows; 'a guard on an underground train which is moving away from the station, is about to knock his head on the station wall as a consequence of his interest in a young, blonde, confident and fashionably dressed woman who is walking away from the platform' (fig. 1). 'A barber at work causes threat to the 'life and limb' of a customer he is shaving, as a consequence of being distracted outside his shop window by a young, blonde, carefree, seductive looking woman with a short dress' (fig. 2), and finally: 'A gardener cutting grass with a lawn mower, is distracted by a young, smartly dressed brunette, neglects his work as a consequence, and so puts another man's life at risk who is lying directly in front of him'. Notably, the syntagmatic narrative could be developed with a little more detailed description, but it is important I feel, to keep the narrative short, brief and factual,, in other words, estate what you see' without the risk of becoming too flowery, or alternatively, too vague. Each narrative contains the term 'as a consequence' and this is also vital, as I have tried to show that syntagmatic narrative structures all consist of sequential and causal relations; the woman disembarks from the train, (as a result of getting on it), she walks away from the platform, her appearance is the cause of her sexual attraction which causes the guard to notice her, and as a direct cause of this, he puts his life in danger.
It is also pointed out that aspects of montage are important to discuss in syntagmatic forms (Chandler, WWW) which I will try to apply to the texts. Montage mainly focuses on the spatial relationships in the text and how they relate to each other. In figure 1, the woman is placed at the forefront of the photo, making her important in relation to the other objects around her. She is juxtaposed against a blurred background so that she catches the eye of the female reader, the advertiser hoping that the reader is encouraged to buy Wallis clothes from the woman's apparent style and power over males! Another important point, is that the train and the guard are put in the background and are presented in soft focus. This juxtaposition alongside the close-up shot of the woman makes the guard seem unimportant in comparison, when really he is just as important because he is the signifier of the 'killing' action in Dress to Kill. Additionally, it may be important to note that the juxtaposition of the woman against the dirty and dreary background of the tube station may also signify a contrast between middle class and working class, although this could spark off some controversy.
In figure 2, the woman is cleverly positioned alongside the male figures on the outside of the window, thus conveying her freedom and independence compared to a Barber who works in a shop all day and a businessman who has responsibilities. Additionally, we may presume that due to the male figures being placed at the forefront of the photo, they are the most significant signifiers. However, it is due to the horror on the face of the customer and the direct gaze of the Barber elsewhere that makes us inquisitive to avert our eyes to the left of the page to see what he is staring at, the woman thus appearing just as important. The juxtaposition of the car alongside the woman outside may also be of significance since it is a Mercedes which resembles style, money and power; attributes which the women who buy Wallis clothes are presented as having.
In figure 3, the objects and the people in the photo are more spaced out than in figure 2 which gives the reader a clear idea of how the text should be read. The people have no connection to each other; the woman does not know the males as she is deliberately walking away from them, possibly going to work. The gardener looks on, maybe looking at her for some mutual recognition, especially as her feet are in an unusual position; walking one foot in front of the other is odd unless you're about to stop. That they know each other seems unlikely though, because of what has gone before in the two previous texts of the series.
It seems necessary also to mention that in figures 1 and 2, the woman's head is placed above the males' which may signify the subverting of patriarchal control, and the caption is strategically and appropriately placed alongside the men who are supposedly going to be killed, emphasising the signified concept of Dress to Kill.
Arguably, we may presume that the woman is the signifier that has the most importance in the text and carries more weight than the others due to her being the focal point of the advert; Wallis is aimed at a female market, and the model wears the products the company wants to sell. In fact, the advert could just simply consist of the important signifier; the woman, wearing a range of clothes that the company sells with the caption Dress to Kill which would be interpreted metaphorically. However, from the placing of the male figure in situations where he could kill himself, the signified concept of 'dressing to kill' is more literal, the female appeal and incentive to buy perhaps residing in the comical but yet unlikely chance of it actually happening (sadistic though it sounds!).
The syntagmatic analysis of the texts has enabled me to recognise a 'shared' syntagm which applies to each advert in the series, and which may also apply to others in a different series; 'Attractive woman dressed in Wallis clothes attracts the undivided attention of a man at work, who becomes so engrossed by her appearance, he becomes oblivious to his actions thus endangering either his life (as in fig. 1), or the lives of others (figs. 2 & 3).
As we have already stated, the texts each belong to a class of paradigms; the medium being magazine advertising, the genre being women’s magazines, and the theme being fashion associated with looking and feeling good. The medium of course could be changed, but this undoubtedly would affect the meanings generated. For example, if the text was developed for television, the impact of the active visual image would certainly be effective; the consumer would be able to see the clothes more clearly and in more detail, which would encourage purchase, but then questions would arise as to whether the advert would be broadcast in colour or black and white. Colour would be good in attracting the viewer to the visible quality and appearance of the clothes, but would take away the effect of a black and white advert which is rarely seen on TV, conveying a sense of importance, class and style (see earlier). There is also the question of whether the last camera shot would stop just before the man hits his head, the barber cuts the man's throat, and the gardener churns the man into a pulp! If this approach were to be achieved, I believe that the signified concepts and meanings would be read the same as in the magazines. However, if the advert actually showed the men being killed (acting of course!), undoubtedly it would be distasteful to many, and disapproved of by males and females alike; the effect of the 'dressing to kill' being solely for humour's and not horror's sake. Radio on the other hand, would not be an effective medium to use, since it is the effectiveness of the visual image that attracts the reader, its meaning neatly condensed into an enclosed set, as is typical of still photographs (Merris Griffiths, WWW).
It is a fact that the structuralist method employed by many semioticians involves the study of paradigms as binary or polar oppositions (Chandler, WWW), and there are many contrasting pairs that can be recognised in these texts. Male/female appears to be the most central opposition, since male and female sexuality is connoted from their pairing in the text, the subsequent 'power' the woman has over the man leading us to the next noticeable oppositions; dominant/subordinate; the dominant figure thus being the woman over the subordinate man. Black/white, and mind/body are also binary oppositions in the text, the text presented in black and white, and the fact that the man's mind is dominated by the body of the woman. Other opposites that can be recognised behind the reading of the text are producer/consumer and freedom/oppression,' the former being self explanatory, the latter referring to the portrayal of the modern free woman in adverts compared to the rather oppressed, stereotypical woman of advert history which household products were mainly aimed at. The paradigmatic structures of the paired oppositions connote sexuality, beauty, gender, patriarchy, [male/female]; class, nostalgia and romance [black/white]; heart, health and welfare [mind/body); money, power and gratification [producer/consumer]; and finally, independence and individuality [freedom/oppression]. The three adverts connote that women can have sexual control over men, and all of these connotations can be associated with modern day views on femininity, aspects of which can almost always be found in a woman's magazine whether on the problem pages or in beauty articles.
It is possible to apply the commutation test to the adverts in order to substitute one signifier for another which ultimately results in a different signified meaning. For example, in figure 1, if we were to change the signifier of the guard's uniform (which identifies him as a guard), and make him an ordinarily dressed man, the meaning of the sign would be different. The advert would not comply with the other adverts in the series which portray men at work, and the reader would be asking questions as to why an ordinary man would be standing in the driver's cabin of a train when he has no business there, or maybe he's a lover? Similarly, it we changed the woman's mode of dress into a pair of jeans and a t-shirt, the meaning would be again different, for although it is a 'trendy' mode of dress, it is not widely regarded as being feminine or sexually attractive on a female, thus questions would be asked regarding how a man finds this so attractive he endangers his life! It is too unbelievable! These substitutions of signifiers would not result in the same interpretations; too many questions are asked and so the text has too many different meanings.
In media education, it is imperative that we remember each media text does not exist as a singular entity, but in relation to other texts (Chandler, WWW), and this is called intertextuality. It is not necessary however for the reader to have looked at other texts beforehand in order to understand these texts (a prerequisite needed to interpret Smirnoff vodka adverts, for example). The photographs clearly portray the signifiers which are needed in obtaining the meaning of the text, and as established earlier, the caption also 'anchors' the image.
The adverts can be related to other texts within the same genre which play on the feelings of pleasure that are evoked from buying the product. For example, in the same magazine, fashion adverts can be found that use this same kind of technique; the Etam advert claims they sell "Clothes with Personality", Ulrika Johnsson representing the 'personality' that is supposedly obtained from wearing Etam merchandise. Additionally, beauty ads like Cover Girl use captions like, "What's this girl got that you haven't got?" and adverts for the Peugeot 106 state, "Declare your Independence" All of these ads play on the fact that the woman needs to become an individual with independence, personality, with all the trendy things that women of the same age have; as Dyer suggests, "they evoke emotions and feelings through promises of pleasure connected to the purchase of the product" (1982: 126).
In each text, signs are organized into meaningful systems according to certain conventions which semioticians refer to as codes (Chandler, WWW). The semiotic codes within these texts will be classified under Daniel Chandler's tripartite framework. Firstly, the texts contain social codes; bodily codes due to the appearance of the women and men, facial expressions, physical orientation and movements they make, commodity codes because the company are selling fashions which is a commodity in itself, and also behavioural codes which refer to the traditional codes of behaviour men are recognised here as having when a woman walks by! The texts contain textual codes; mass media codes because the text is actually a photograph, aesthetic codes due to the connotations of romanticism and class associated with black and white, and genre, rhetorical and stylistic codes. It could also be argued that the text contains ideological codes due to the sub-codes of individualism, freedom, patriarchy, class and gender involved - after all, all codes can be seen as ideological (Chandler, WWW). The codes can be seen as narrowest because the text is only aimed at women of the age range 20-35; the almost sadistic humour of a man killing himself or another over a woman clearly excludes any male audiences!
The social codes are undoubtedly shared with other media, the aesthetic, textual and ideological codes also being used in various forms of media such as television and film. However, the codes in this text are intrinsically linked with the bodily, commodity, behavioural and aesthetic codes of the modern day interpretation of the 90s woman, and connote the kind of female individuality and independence that the character Annie Palmer has in EastEnders, or the 'Girl Power' that popular bands like the Spice Girls project.
Finally, the mode of address is not direct. Although Dress to Kill is a direct command to the reader, and the close-up shots of the women are 'intimate', the photographs are impersonal due to the models looking away from the camera.
If more time and space was available, it would have been beneficial for me to have completed a more in-depth analysis of the Wallis ads. The conclusions I have drawn from this semiotic analysis may not appear to be conclusive, but it is important to remember that adverts are extremely complex and contain many concepts and ideologies. Advertisements are there to be enjoyed as well as studied since they form an integral part of our society. From my studies of semiotic analysis, I have clarified the fact that semiotics can make the analysis of advertisements a more interesting and useful activity. It has offered me great insight into the discourse of signs which is structured in the world around us, and has enabled me to establish in my own mind that advertisements (as do other media), have more than one meaning, depending on how it operates, how signs and their 'ideological' effects are organized within the text, and in relation to its production, circulation, etc. (Dyer 1982:115).
April 1998
